Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by elevated levels of glucose in the broth or hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both(prenominal). Normally a certain amount of glucose circulates in the blood. The study sources of this glucose atomic number 18 absorption of ingested food in the GI tract and formation of glucose by the liver from food substances (Kozier et. l, 2002). Clients name is Mr. Harvey, 48 eld old and has three children and he is saucily diagnosed having figure 1 Diabetes. He is a college undergraduate and has experienced operative in a restaurant as chief cook until promptly where in he works for 6 hours. He is alike a crushed businessman and is greatly affected by the economic particularise as of the grant.He only earns enough for his kids since he is a single kindle he earns about(predicate) 350 dollars a day including his earnings in his small business. These component parts aforem entioned greatly influence to his ability to access the necessary health care that he should bewilder. Yes, he has a job exclusively his earnings is non enough for him to be thoroughly be checked by healthcare professionals, and also because he has three kids which are all studying as swellhead.As a single invoke, it is his job also to look after his children and this pith all his extra time will be devoted to them and he will not be able to go through to his own of necessity and other self- care practices needed for his condition. Although he can do roundwhat modification in his diet restrained he cannot man develop to conformable all throughout because he still has a lot of things to attend to, but nevertheless as a college undergraduate he has some basic know directge about the condition he has which is pillowcase 1 Diabetes.Although he has a job and a business of his own it still does not erase the fact that he is a single parent of three kids, maybe he can buy so me medical specialty for his condition but it will not be continuous because he will tend to prioritize other things. Prognosis of his condition would be poor because he cannot focus on the treatments that he should be acquire to alleviate his condition Diabetes is much(prenominal) a silent killer peculiarly when complications arise. Lastly, diabetes can be fatal.Diabetes MellitusDiabetes Mellitus (DM) is a common and potentially serious, chronic metabolic condition which is characterized predominantly by hyperglycemia and other manifestations. Diabetes can be a devastating condition with long lasting hazardous consequences since collectible to its chronicity it affects al almost all the major organs of the body including the eyes, the kidneys, the nerves, heart and blood vessels (Jennifer, 1998). at that place are twain main vitrines of Diabetes Mellitus viz. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (also termed as Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus or IDDM and juvenile Diabetes Mellitus) and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (also know as Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus or NIDDM and adult-onset Diabetes Mellitus) (Jennifer, 1998). Type 1 DM is more common as compared to geek 2 DM in younger age groups and accounts for almost two-thirds of the cases of diabetes diagnosed amongst individuals less than 19 years of age (Levitsky & Misra, 2008).Epidemiology of DM The magnitude of the occupationIn the United States, Diabetes Mellitus is the fourth reach outing cause of cobblers last and accounts to 178,000 deaths per year (Do I Have Diabetes?, 1998). Individuals with DM have been shown to have a 5-10 years shorter lifespan as compared to their convention counterparts (Lipsky & Sharp, 2004). Moreover, DM also contributes to world-shattering morbidity and remains amongst the leading cause of blindness in adults in the 20-74 years age group. Similarly, it also remains as one of the most common causes of non-traumatic lower-limb amputation and end-stage renal disease (ES RD) (Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 A Review, 2007).It was estimated that about 7% of the U.S population (20.8 billion individuals) were inflicted with this condition in the year 2005. Amongst these, 14.6 one million million were diagnosed as having DM while the rest were undiagnosed. Moreover, an additional 54 million people were shown to have pre-diabetes (defined below) (Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 A Review, 2007). It is alarming to place that over the past decades, the incidence of DM has been increasing and it was observed that the fortune of adults in the U.S diagnosed with DM outgrowthd by 49% (from 4.9 to 7.3%) during the period 1990-2000 (Lipsky & Sharp, 2004).Diabetes Mellitus is also important from an economic and public health perspective as well since it leads to both direct and indirect costs of health care. The magnitude of the problem can be judged by the fact that in the year 2002, the per-capita healthcare cost for diabetic individua ls was $13,243 as opposed to $2560 for non-diabetics (Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 A Review, 2009).Type 1 and Type 2 DM A comparisonAs discussed above, thither are two main eccentric persons of Diabetes mellitus lineament 1 DM and sheath 2 DM which differ in etiologies and pathogenesis. DM was classified into two major sub showcases viz. IDDM and NIDDM in 1979 by the National Diabetes info Group and this classification was later endorsed by WHO (Jennifer, 1998). However, this classification had certain limitations and therefrom the novel guidelines classify DM into four main groups viz. fictional character 1 DM, type 2 DM, other specific types and gestational diabetes (Jennifer, 1998).According to the recent guidelines, the diagnosis of DM requires two fasting plasma glucose levels of 126 mg per dL (7.0 mmol per L) or greater. Moreover, if after a glucose load of 75 g a patient has two two-hour postprandial plasma glucose (2hrPPG) readings of 200 mg per dL (1 1.1 mmol per L) or higher or two random blood carbohydrate levels of 200 mg per dL (11.1 mmol per L) or higher, he/she can be diagnosed as being diabetic.It is preferable to use the fasting plasma glucose level, out-of-pocket to its better reproducibility and easier administration, however, in clinical practice, a combination of either two abnormal test results can be employed (Jennifer, 1998). In addition to full blown DM, the American Diabetes Association has defined other category, pre-diabetes. This is a state in which the blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes (Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 A Review, 2007).Type 1 DM is a metabolic disease resulting from the autoimmune decease of the pancreatic genus Beta cells located in the Islets of Langerhans which results in a progressive disability to secrete insulin (Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 A Review, 2007). Type 1 DM can present at whatever age th e most common presentation being in childhood but one-fourth of cases are diagnosed in adults. (Levitsky & Misra, 2008). This late presentation of type 1 diabetes mellitus has been termed as latent autoimmune diabetes of the adult (LADA). Studies have suggested that type 1 DM occurs in individuals who are genetically predisposed to ontogeny this disease and its onset may be triggered by certain surround agents such as viruses and toxins (Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 A Review, 2007).Once the onset is triggered, there is progressive destruction of the beta cells and a subsequent decrease in insulin production. However, during this period the individual is asymptomatic and euglycemic (Eisenbarth & McCulloch, 2009). oert hyperglycemia is manifested when more than 80-90% of the beta cells have been destroyed (Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 A Review, 2007). Recently, a newer subtype of type 1 DM has been identified which is characterized by a non-immune mediate d destruction of pancreatic islet cells and has been termed as Type 1B DM (Eisenbarth & McCulloch, 2009).It is a well established fact that type 1 DM is genetically determined. several(prenominal) genes have been implicated to play a role in the pathophysiology of type 1 DM including polymorphisms in HLA-DQalpha, HLA-DQbeta, HLA-DR, preproinsulin, the PTPN22 gene, CTLA-4, interferon-induced helicase, IL2 receptor (CD25), a lectin-like gene (KIA0035), ERBB3e, and an wispy gene at 12q (Eisenbarth & McCulloch, 2009).In individuals with type 1 DM, genetic markers are present since birth. However, it has been elucidated that immune markers develop after the onset of the autoimmune process of beta cell destruction and metabolic derangements can be identified at a time a significant proportion of beta cells have been destroyed but before the occurrence of symptoms (Eisenbarth & McCulloch, 2009).The immune markers which have been identified for type 1 DM imply antibodies to the islet cel l (IA2) and to insulin (IAA). Moreover, autoantibodies to isletglutamate decarboxylase (GAD) including anti-GAD65 have been effect in patients with type 1 DM and are of particular splendour in adults with this disease since these antibodies are clinically detectable and can be used to aid in the detection and diagnosis of type 1 DM in adults (Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 A Review, 2007).Type 2 DM is relatively far more common than Type 1 DM, in particular amongst adults accounts for almost 80-90% of all the cases of DM in various regions of the world (Gerich, 1998). Over the past few decades, epidemiologic studies have identified an alarming increase has been observed in the cases of Type 2 DM to an extent that type 2 DM is now being regarded as an epidemic. In a study conducted in a Japanese population comprising of children of school firing age, type 2 DM was found to be seven generation more common as compared to type 1 DM and a 30-fold increase in its incidenc e was noticed over the last two decades (Rosenbloom, 1999).Type 2 DM typically affects individuals aged greater than 40 years but more recently it has been observed to be occurring more oft in younger age groups and has been found in individuals who are as young as two years of age and have a positive family history of this disorder. There are various factors which have led to an increase in the incidence of type 2 DM in younger age groups. These accept increasing incidence of obesity and a sedentary lifestyle amongst children and an increase in the life expectancy, with more individuals survive past the age of 65 years (Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 A Review, 2007).The etiology of Type 2 DM is a multifactorial and it arises from a complex interplay of both genetic and environmental influences. The inheritance of this disorder does not follow the simple Mandelian patterns. Infact, this disorder has a polygenic inheritance requiring sextuple gene polymorphisms (Geric h, 1998). Lipsky describes the genetic-environmental interaction which is implicated in the development of type 2 DM as A good analogy is that although genetics scores the gun, environment pulls the trigger (Lipsky, 2004).Several genes have been implicated in the author of type 2 DM. Amongst these the three most consistently identified genes include TCF7L2, KCNJ11, and PPARG (Lyssenko, 2008). However, more recently, a number of novel genes which increase an individuals efficiency to type 2 DM have been identified including CDKAL1, IGF2BP2, the venue on chromosome 9 close to CDKN2A/CDKN2B, FTO, HHEX, SLC30A8, WFS1, JAZF1, CDC123/CAMK1D, TSPAN8/LGR5, THADA, ADAMTS9, and NOTCH2 (Lyssenko, 2008).The pathogenesis of Type 2 DM is incompatible from type 1 DM in that it results from both an impairment in insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion as opposed to Type 1 DM which results solely from impaired insulin secretion (Gerich, 2009). Individuals with type 2 DM have end-organ or peri pheral resistance to insulin and additionally a defect in the production of insulin and recent data suggests that both must co-exist for causing manifestations of type 2 DM. Several danger factors have been identified which increase a persons susceptibility to developing type 2 AM.These include a positive family history of DM, and increase in the Body dope Index (BMI), impaired or elevated Liver Function Tests (LFTs), comorbid conditions such as current smoking status and hypertension, decreased measures of insulin secretion and action, Hispanic, primaeval American, African American, Asian American, or Pacific Islander descent , a history of GDM or of delivering a baby with a birth incubus of 9 lb and Polycystic ovarian syndrome (Lyssenko, 2008 and Votey & Peters, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 A Review, 2007).Amongst other adventure factors, obesity is one of the most consistently identified and the strongest risk factor for the development of type 2 DM. Moreover, studies have sho wn that intraabdominal obesity is of particular deduction in causing insulin resistance (Gerich, 2009). Most of these risk factors are modifiable and current public health strategies focus on targeting these modifiable risk factors in addition to pharmacologic intervention for the control of type 2 DM.The complications of DM are numerous and diverse and include increased susceptibility to infections, microvascular complications including nephropathy, neuropathy and retinopathy which can lead to subsequent end-organ failure and macrovascular complications, which include stroke and coronary artery disease (Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 A Review, 2007).In conclusion, DM is a common disorder and affects a large proportion of the population globally. There are two main types of DM viz. type1 and type 2 and both differ in etiology and pathogenesis. DM can lead to several manifestations and complications and hence is a major public health concern. Although grand research has been conducted in order to identify the underlying etiology of both types of DM, there is a pressing need to explore the arena of bar measures for this disorder and devise strategies to control the increasing incidence of Type 2 DM in the younger age groups.ReferencesDo I Have Diabetes? (1998, October 15). Retrieved April 20, 2009, from American Family Physician http//www.aafp.org/afp/AFPprinter/981015ap/981015b.htmlEisenbarth, G. S., & McCulloch, D. K. (2009, February 11). Pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from Uptodate online http//www.uptodate.com/patients/content/topic.do?topicKey=JYHFR94z4VP3LY&selectedTitle=4 one hundred fifty&source=search_resultGerich, John E. (1998) The Genetic Basis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus afflicted Insulin Secretion versus Impaired Insulin Sensitivity. Endocrine Reviews 19(4) 491503Jennifer, M. (1998). Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus New Criteria. American Famil Physician .Levitsky, L. L., & Misra, M. (2008, Novem ber 18). Epidemiology, presentation, and diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from Uptodate Online http//www.uptodate.com/patients/content/topic.do?topicKey=0babJ4CniXpnXAf&selectedTitle=12150&source=search_resultLipsky, M. S., & Sharp, L. K. (2004). Preventive Therapy for Diabetes Lifestyle Changes and the Primary Care Physician. American Family Physician .Lyssenko Valeria et al. (2008) Clinical Risk Factors, DNA Variants, and the Development of Type 2 Diabetes. The New England Journal of Medicine 359 21Rosenbloom, Arlan L. and Joe Jenny R. (1999). Emerging epidemic of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Youth. Diabetes Care 22345354Votey, S. R., & Peters, A. L. (2007, October 2). Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 A Review. Retrieved April 2, 2009, from emedicine http//emedicine.medscape.com/article/766036-overviewVotey, S. R., & Peters, A. L. (2009, February 2). Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 A Review. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from emedicine h ttp//emedicine.medscape.com/article/766143-overview